Measures
A measure is a group of beats. The beats are added
together, in measures, to obtain a larger unit of time, because larger
divisions are more convenient for longer periods; just as we prefer to
indicate the dimensions of a house, or farm, in feet or rods, rather
than in inches.
Measures differ considerably in extent in various compositions,
inasmuch as the number of beats enclosed between the vertical bar
be, and is, determined quite arbitrarily. What is known as a Simple
measure contains either the two beats (heavy-light) of the fundamental
duple group, or the three beats (heavy-light-light) of the triple
group, shown in the preceding chapter. Compound measures are such as
contain more than two or three beats, and they must always be
multiplications, or groups, of a Simple measure; for whether so small
as to comprise only the fundamental groups of two or three beats (as in
2-4, 3-8, 3-4 measure), or so large as to embrace as many as twelve
beats or more (as in 4-4, 6-4, 6-8, 9-8, 12-8 measure), the measure
represents, practically, either the duple or triple species, Simple or
Compound. Thus, a measure of four beats, sometimes called (needlessly)
quadruple rhythm, is merely twice two beats; the species is actually
duple; the alternation of heavy and light pulses is regular; and
therefore the third beat is again an accent, as well as the first,
though less heavy. A measure of 6-8 is triple species, with accents
at beats one and four, precisely as if an additional vertical bar were
inserted after the third beat. In a word, then, the size of the
adopted measure is of no consequence, as long as it is retained
uniformly through the section to which it belongs; and there is no
real difference between 2-4 and 4-4 measure, excepting in the number
of bars used.
A curious and rare exception to this rule of the compound measure
occurs when five or seven beats are grouped together. This involves a
mingling of the duple and triple species, and, consequently, an
irregular disposition of the accents; for instance, 5-4 measure is
either 3+2 or 2+3 beats, with corresponding accentuation:
More
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Causes
The possibility of deviating from the fundamental standard of phrase-dimension (four measures) has been repeatedly intimated, and is treated with some detail in the text preceding Example 17, which should be reviewed. It is now necessary to examine... Causes
Despite the many points of resemblance between the various forms to which our successive chapters have been devoted,--the natural consequence of a continuous line of structural evolution to which each plan owes its origin,--they are separate and ind... Classification Of The Larger Forms
The Sonatine form is the smaller variety of two practically kindred designs, known collectively as the Sonata-allegro forms. In order to obtain a clear conception of its relation to the latter, and also to the Rondo-forms, it is necessary to subje... Contents Of The Phrase
The question may arise, what is it that makes a phrase,--the rhythm, harmony, or melody? Strictly speaking, all three; for music subsists in the ceaseless co-operation of these three primary elements of composition, and no phrase is wholly complete... Defining The Figures
It is not always easy to distinguish the figures in a melodic sentence. While they are unquestionably analogous to the words in speech, they are by no means as concrete, nor are they separated as distinctly, as the words upon a written or printed s... Dissolution
When any section of a higher form starts out with a perfectly definite structural intention, pursues this intention for a time (sufficient to establish it), but then insensibly diverges and gradually adopts a new modulatory direction,--as transition... Distinction Between Bipartite And Tripartite Forms
We learned, in the preceding chapter, that the Two-Part Song-form is a composition of rather brief extent, with so decisive a perfect cadence in its course as to divide it, in a marked manner, into two separate and fairly individual sections or Par... Enlargement By Repetition
The first and simplest method is to increase the length of the period-form by the process of repetition; repetition of the entire sentence, or of any one--or several--of its component members, in a manner very similar to that already seen in connec... Evolution
It cannot have escaped the observant student of the foregoing pages, that the successive enlargement of the structural designs of musical composition is achieved by a process of natural growth and progressive evolution. No single form intrudes itse... Exact Repetitions
When Part I,--or Parts II and III together,--are to be repeated without any changes, it is customary to employ the familiar repetition-marks (double-bar and dots); with first and second ending, if, for any reason, some modification of the cadence-me... Exceptions
In its ordinary, normal condition the phrase is a musical sentence four measures in length. But this rule has its necessary exceptions; necessary because, as we have learned, the principle of Variety is quite as vital as that of Unity or symmetry. ... Group Of Parts
In some, comparatively rare, instances, the arrangement of perfect cadences is such that,--coupled with independence of melodic formation and character,--the composition seems to separate into four or more individual sections or Parts, with or with... Inherent Irregularity
Finally,--there exists another, third, condition, besides those mentioned at the head of this chapter, whereby a phrase may assume an irregular dimension; not by doubling or dividing its length (as in the large and small phrases) nor by the processe... Length Of The Regular Phrase
Fortunately for the work of analysis, there are certain established landmarks of forms, so conscientiously observed, and so firmly grounded in the practices of classic writing (because the necessary consequences of natural law), that it is generall... Lesson 1
The student is to study this chapter thoroughly, and write answers to the following questions; if possible, without reference to the text:-- 1. What does Form in music mean? 2. Define the conditions which constitute good form. 3. When is a c... Lesson 10
Analyze the following examples of the Three-Part Song-form. The first step, here again, is to fix the end of the First Part; the next, to mark the beginning of the Third Part, by determining where the return to the beginning is made. These points e... Lesson 11
Analyze the following examples of the enlarged Three-Part Song-form. As before, the form of each Part should be defined, and introductions and codas (if present) properly marked. All of the given examples belong to this chapter, but are not classi... Lesson 12
The following examples all belong to the Song with Trio. They should be analyzed as usual, each Song separately, defining the Parts, their form, and other details, as minutely as possible. Careful analysis is the first condition of intelligent inte... Lesson 13
Analyze the following examples. They are not classified; the student must determine whether the form is pure First Rondo, or an intermediate grade between Rondo and Song with Trio. One of the examples is a genuine Song with Trio; and one is a Thre... Lesson 14
Analyze the following examples, as usual. Review the directions given in Lesson 13:-- Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas: op. 10, No. 3, last movement. Op. 14, No. 2, last movement (called Scherzo). Op. 79, last movement (very concise). Op. 13... Lesson 15
Analyze the following examples, as usual. They represent chiefly the Third Rondo-form, but one example each of the First and Second Rondo-forms have been introduced, to stimulate the vigilance of the student. Review the directions given in Lesson ... Lesson 16
Analyze the following examples of the sonatine-form, in the usual exhaustive manner:-- Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 10, No. 1, Adagio. Op. 31, No. 2, Adagio. Mendelssohn, Andante cantabile in B-flat major (pianoforte). Mozart, pianof... Lesson 17
Analyze the following examples, as usual, carefully defining all the details of the form, according to the general plan adopted in our text:-- Beethoven, pianoforte sonatas; op. 2, No. 1, first movement (diminutive, but very complete and perfect)... Lesson 18
Analyze the following examples of Irregular form. They are classified, as in the text:-- 1. Beethoven, sonata, op. 81, first movement. Beethoven, sonata, op. 49, No. 2, first movement. Beethoven, sonata, op. 2, No. 3, first movement. Beet... Lesson 19
The student may now indulge in independent research, in the careful analysis of the following works: The pianoforte sonatas of Haydn (every movement of each). The sonatas for pianoforte and violin of Mozart, Beethoven, Brahms, Rubinstein, Grieg,... Lesson 2
Write careful and complete answers to the following questions:-- 1. What is Time, as applied to music? 2. What is tempo? 3. Give a full definition of the beat. 4. By what time-value is it most commonly indicated? 5. Give a full definiti... Lesson 3
Analyze the third Song Without Words of Mendelssohn (A major, the so-called Hunting Song); first of all, locate the principal melody,--it is not always the uppermost line of tones; then divide this melody into its melodic motives, marking the breaks... Lesson 4
Procure the Jugend Album, op. 68, of Schumann, and mark the phrases in Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 13, 18, 20, and others. In the given numbers the phrases are all regular,--four measures in length. Analyze in the same manner Mendelssohn's Songs... Lesson 7
Analyze the following examples. Locate the cadences; compare the phrases and define the degrees of Unity and of Variety exhibited in the melody, or elsewhere; and mark such irregularities of forms (or extensions) as may be found:-- Mendelssohn, ... Lesson 8
Analyze the following examples. They are not classified; therefore the student must himself determine to which of the above three species of enlargement each belongs: Mendelssohn, Songs Without Words, No. 29, measures 1-21, (first 4 measures an ... Lesson 9
Analyze the following examples of the Two-Part Song-form. Define the form of each Part, marking and classifying all cadences; and indicate introductions and codas (or codettas), if present. The first step in the analysis of these forms is to divide... Locating The Cadences
Next to the recognition and comparison of the different melodic sections of a composition (in a word, the melodic delineation of the whole), the most significant task in music analysis is the locating and classifying of the cadences. They are the a... Measures
A measure is a group of beats. The beats are added together, in measures, to obtain a larger unit of time, because larger divisions are more convenient for longer periods; just as we prefer to indicate the dimensions of a house, or farm, in feet or... Melody
Any succession of single tones is a melody. If we strike the keys of the piano with two or more fingers of each hand simultaneously, we produce a body of tones, which--if they are so chosen that they blend harmoniously--is called a Chord; and a ser... Modification Or Disguising Of The Cadence
The most natural and characteristic indication of a cadence is the longer tone, seen in the examples to which reference has just been made; for a tone of greater length than its fellows is, in itself, the most conclusive evidence of a point of repo... Modified Repetitions
The quality and extent of the changes that may be made, in order to enrich the composition without altering its structural design, depend, as has been intimated, upon the judgment and fancy of the composer. The student will find no part of his anal... Origin Of The Name
The fully developed Sonata-allegro form is the design in which the classic overture and the first movement of the symphony, sonata and concerto are usually framed. The student must be careful not to confound this musical form with the complete sona... Part I
The statement of the principal idea; the presentation of the melodic and rhythmic contents of the leading thought, out of which the whole composition is to be developed. It is generally a period-form, at least, closing with a firm perfect cadence i... Part Ii
The departure (more or less emphatic) from this leading melodic statement. It is, for a time, probably an evident continuation and development of the melodic theme embodied in the First Part; but it does not end there; it exhibits a retrospective b... Part Iii
The recurrence and corroboration of the original statement; the reproduction of Part I, and therewith the fulfilment of the important principle of return and confirmation. The reproduction is sometimes exact and complete; sometimes slight changes, ... Perfect Cadence
There is one method of checking the current of the melodic phrase with such emphasis and determination as to convey the impression of finality; either absolute finality, as we observe it at the very end of a composition, or such relative finality as... Phrase-addition
The phrase is the structural basis of all musical composition. By this is meant, not necessarily the single phrase, but the phrase in its collective sense. The phrase is, after all, only a unit; and the requirements of Variety cannot be wholly s... Preliminary Tones
It is a singularly effective and pregnant quality of the element of musical rhythm, that its operations are not bounded by the vertical bars which mark off the measures. That is to say, a rhythmic figure (and, in consequence, a melodic figure or mo... Relation To The Three-part Song-form
In a former chapter (XIII) the Three-Part form was defined as the type of perfect structural design, upon which every larger (or higher) form is based. Nowhere is the connection more striking, and the process of natural evolution out of this germ ... Repetition Of The Parts
The enlargement of the Three-Part Song-form is effected, in the majority of cases, by simply repeating the Parts. The composer, in extending the dimensions of his original design, resorts as usual to the most legitimate and natural means at his dis... Rhythm
This word signifies arrangement,--a principle applied, in music, to the distribution or arrangement of the tones according to their various time-values. The system of measurement (or metric system) furnishes tone material with all the details of di... Semicadence
Any deviation from the formula of the perfect cadence--either in the choice of some other than the tonic chord, or in the omission of the keynote in either (or both) of the outer parts--weakens the force of the interruption, and transforms the cade... Species Of Cadence
In text-books and musical dictionaries several varieties of the cadence are distinguished, but they are chiefly distinctions without any more than one essential point of difference, namely, difference in force or weight. It is therefore feasible to... Tempo
This refers to the degree of motion. The musical picture is not constant, but panoramic; we never hear a piece of music all at once, but as a panorama of successive sounds. Tempo refers to the rate of speed with which the scroll passes before our ... The Development Or Middle Division
The second division of the sonata-allegro form is devoted to a more or less extensive and elaborate manipulation and combination of such figures, motives, phrases or Parts of the Exposition as prove inviting and convenient for the purpose, or chall... The Double-period
A third method consists in expanding the period into a double-period (precisely as the phrase was lengthened into a double-phrase, or period), by avoiding a perfect cadence at the end of the second phrase, and adding another pair of phrases to balan... The Exposition
This first Division, the statement, compounded of two themes and a recurrence, is in itself a complete (though probably very concise) First Rondo-form; therefore, in order to confirm the intended design, at least one of its themes must contain two (... The Exposition
The presentation of the thematic factors, the statement or Exposition of the two themes and codetta, is made exactly as in the sonatine-form, though probably upon a broader scale. The Principal theme is usually a Two-Part Song-form, at least; often... The First Part
Part One may be designed as period, double-period, or phrase-group; sometimes, though very rarely, as single phrase, repeated. It ends, usually, with a strong perfect cadence on the tonic chord of the original key, or of some related key (that is, on... The First Rondo-form
This consists, then, of a Principal theme (generally Two-Part or Three-Part Song-form); a Subordinate theme in a different key (probably a smaller form); a recurrence of the Principal theme (usually more or less modified or elaborated); and a coda. ... The Five-part Form
The repetition of the Second and Third Parts together is sometimes subjected to changes that are almost radical in their nature, and therefore appear to modify the form itself. These important changes chiefly affect the Second Part, when it reappea... The Melodic Figure
The smallest unit in musical composition is the single tone. The smallest cluster of successive tones (from two to four or five in number) that will convey a definite musical impression, as miniature musical idea, is called a Figure. Assuming the ... The Melodic Motive Or Phrase-member
This, as has already been stated, is a somewhat longer section, compounded of two or more figures. Being thus longer, the breaks or spaces between motives are generally more emphatic and recognizable than those between the figures, and therefore i... The Necessity Of Form In Music
So much uncertainty and diversity of opinion exists among music lovers of every grade concerning the presence of Form in musical composition, and the necessity of its presence there, that a few general principles are submitted at the outset of our ... The Parts
If we inquire into the means employed, in the larger Part-forms, to effect the division of the whole into its broader Parts, we find that the prime factors, here again, are Cadence and Melody. The strongest sign of the consummation of a Part is a de... The Period
The Period-form is obtained by the addition of a second phrase to the first. It is therefore, in a sense, a double phrase; that is, it consists of two connected phrases, covering eight ordinary measures, or just double the number commonly assigned ... The Phrase
It is not altogether easy to give a precise definition of the phrase. Like so many of the factors which enter into the composition of this most abstract, ideal, and intangible of the arts, the phrase demands considerable latitude of treatment, and ... The Phrase-group
A second method consists in enlarging the period-form to three phrases, by the same process of addition which, as explained in the preceding chapter, transforms the single phrase into the double-phrase or period. In order to preserve the continuity... The Principal Song
The first division, called the principal song, is either a Two-Part or a Three-Part Song-form,--most commonly the latter. It is generally entirely complete in itself; the fact that another division is to be added, does not affect its character, form...