Chords Cadences Etc


196. A chord is a combination of several tones sounding together and

bearing an harmonic relation to each other. The simplest chord is the

triad, which consists of a fundamental tone called the root, with

the third and fifth above it. C--E--G is a triad, as are also D--F--A,

F--A--C, and G--B--D.



197. Triads are classified as major, minor, diminished, or

augmented.



A major
riad has a major third and a perfect fifth, i.e.,

it is a major third with a minor third on top of it. Ex.

C--E--G.



A minor triad has a minor third and a perfect fifth, i.e.,

it is a minor third with a major third on top of it. Ex.

C--E[flat]--G.



A diminished triad has a minor third and a diminished fifth,

i.e., it is a minor third with another minor third on top of

it. Ex. C--E[flat]--G[flat].



An augmented triad has a major third and an augmented fifth,

i.e., it is a major third with another major third on top of

it. Ex. C--E--G[sharp].



198. A triad may be built on any scale-tone, but those on I, IV, and V,

are used so much oftener than the others that they are often called the

common chords. In referring to triads the Roman numerals are used to

show on what scale-tone the triad is based, the size of the numeral

(with other signs) indicating the kind of triad found on each tone of

the scale. Thus e.g., the large I shows that the triad on the first

tone (in major) is a major triad, the small II shows that the triad

on the second tone is minor, etc. The following figure will make this

clear.









The triads in the minor scale are as follows:









199. A triad is said to be in fundamental position when its root is

the lowest tone. It is said to be in the first inversion when the

third is the lowest tone, and in the second inversion when the fifth

is the lowest tone. Thus e.g., in Fig. 66 the same chord (C--E--G) is

arranged in three different positions, at (a) in fundamental position,

at (b) in the first inversion, and at (c) in the second inversion.









200. When the root is not the bass note, figures are sometimes used to

show what chord is to be played or written. Thus, e.g., the figure 6

over a bass note means that the note given is the third of a chord,

the root being found by going up a sixth from the bass note: i.e., the

chord is to be sounded in its first inversion. In the same way the

figures 6/4 indicate that the note given is the fifth of the chord,

the root and fifth being found by going up a sixth and a fourth from the

note given; i.e., the chord is to be sounded in its second inversion.



The use of these and other similar figures and signs is called figured

bass (or thorough bass) notation. An example of a figured bass is

given in Fig. 67.









Thorough bass notation was formerly used extensively in

writing accompaniments to vocal works, the accompanist having

to interpret the notes and signs given, and then to make up an

interesting accompaniment as he went along. Much of Handel's

music was written in this way, but in modern editions of these

works the chords have been printed in full and the signs

omitted.



201. A seventh chord consists of a fundamental tone with its third,

fifth, and seventh. The fifth is sometimes omitted. A ninth chord

consists of a fundamental with its third, fifth, seventh, and ninth.



202. A cadence is the close of a musical phrase: in melody it refers

to the last two tones; in harmony to the last two chords.



The word cadence is derived from cadere, a Latin word

meaning to fall, the reference being to the falling of the

voice (i.e., the dropping to the normal pitch) at the close

of a sentence.



203. The most frequent cadence in harmony is that involving the chord on

I preceded by the chord on V. Because of its directness the cadence V--I

is called the authentic cadence.



204. The most satisfactory form (to the ear) of the authentic cadence is

that in which the highest voice (the soprano) of the final chord is the

root of that chord. When the final chord appears in this position the

cadence is called perfect[36] authentic, and when the third or

fifth of the chord appear in the soprano, the cadence is called

imperfect authentic. Fig. 68 shows the chord G--B--D cadencing to

C--E--G in three different ways. The first one (a) is called a perfect

authentic cadence, but the last two (c) and (d) are imperfect

authentic.



[Footnote 36: Many theorists (including Durand in his monumental

Treatise on Harmony) consider the V--I cadence to be the only one

which may legitimately be called perfect, but the majority of writers

seem to take the view that either authentic or plagal cadence may be

either perfect or imperfect, depending upon the soprano tone, as noted

above.]









205. A plagal cadence is one in which the tonic chord is preceded by

the sub-dominant chord (IV--I). The plagal cadence (sometimes called

the church cadence, or amen cadence), like the authentic, is

described as being perfect when the soprano of the tonic chord is the

root of that chord, and imperfect when the soprano of the final chord

is the third or fifth of that chord. Fig. 69 shows the chord F--A--C

cadencing to C--E--G in three ways. The first one (a) is called a

perfect plagal cadence, the last two are imperfect plagal.









206. A half-cadence occurs when the dominant chord is used as the

final chord of a phrase, and is immediately preceded by the tonic chord.

This form is used to give variety in the course of a composition, but is

not available at the end because it does not give a definite close in

the tonic key. Fig. 70 shows the use of the half-cadence at the close

of such a phrase.









207. A deceptive cadence is the progression of the dominant chord to

some other chord than the tonic, the word deceptive implying that the

ear expects to hear V resolve to I and is deceived when it does not do

so. The most common form of deceptive cadence is that in which V (or

V^7) resolves to VI. It is used to give variety, but as in the case of

the half-cadence, is not available at the end of a composition. Fig. 71

gives an example.







208. A sequence is a succession of similar harmonic progressions,

these resulting from a typical or symmetrical movement of the bass part.

See Fig. 72.







The word sequence is also applied to a succession of similar melodic

progressions, as in Fig. 73.







209. Modulation is a change of key without any break in the continuity

of chords or melody tones. Harmonic modulations are usually effected

through the medium of a chord, some or all of whose tones are common to

both keys. Examples of both harmonic and melodic modulations are

shown in Figs. 74 and 75.







The chord most frequently used in modulating is the dominant seventh,

i.e., a seventh chord (see Sec. 201) on the dominant tone of the key.

In the key of C this chord is G--B--D--F; in the key of D it is

A--C[sharp]--E--G; in the key of A[flat] it is E[flat]--G--B[flat]--D[flat],

etc.







210. A suspension is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree

higher than the regular chord-tone, this temporary tone being later

replaced by the regular chord-tone. See Fig. 76 (a).







211. A retardation is the temporary substitution of a tone a degree

lower than the regular tone, this tone (as in the case of the

suspension) being later replaced by the regular chord tone. See Fig. 77

(a).







The regular chord tone to which both suspension and retardation

resolve is called the tone of resolution.



212. The anticipation is a chord-tone introduced just before the rest

of the chord to which it belongs is sounded. See Fig. 78 (a).







213. A pedal point (or organ point) is a tone sustained through a

succession of harmonic progressions, to the chords of some of which it

usually belongs. The term pedal point originated in organ playing,

(where the foot on a pedal can sustain a tone while the hands are

playing a succession of harmonies), but as now used it may be applied to

any kind of music. The dominant and tonic are the tones most often used

in this way. See Fig. 79.







214. When the upper three voices of a four-voice composition are written

close together (the soprano and tenor never appearing more than an

octave apart), the term close position is applied. But when the upper

voices are not written close together, the term open position is

applied.



215. By transposition is meant playing, singing, or writing a piece of

music in some other key than the original. Thus e.g., if a song

written in the key of G is too high in range for a soloist, the

accompanist sometimes transposes it to a lower key (as F or E), thus

causing all tones to sound a second or a third lower than they did when

the same song was played in the original key.



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